A religious life, not all the religions, not the monks and all that. They are not religious. I know they would abhor me when I say that. I will show it to you logically why it is not. It is all put together by thought. The invention of god is put there by thought. It is simple. All this is clear when you understand the activity of thought.

So what is a spiritual life? I am asking you. You have strange robes, you attend churches, mass, or do some kind of puja in India, or go to temples and mosques, what is a spiritual life? The word spiritual is not pleasant but we will use it for the moment. What is a spiritual life? Would you say a spiritual life is a life of total freedom? Freedom from sorrow, freedom from fear, freedom from all the conditioning - right? To be free. Most of us are in prison - prison of our own making of ideas, or other people's concepts, their own prejudices, their own experiences, they are like bars that hold us in prison. Most of us are slaves to tradition, slaves to some kind of belief, faith, or to experience. To be totally, completely free of all that. Freedom as we said before, that very word implies love. If there is no freedom there is no love. You cannot possibly achieve that freedom through some figure, symbol, person, idea. Freedom means the ending, the ending of the self, the me, the images I have about myself. Then when the brain is free, only then is there that supreme intelligence. Not all the rituals, all you know, all the trivialities, for god's sake, sitting in a posture, meditating, breathing, you follow? That is not - if one can use that word - spiritual. That is all the movement of memory and thought. And thought is limited, which we have gone into, I won't now. So we have reduced our life into a very small petty little affair. To be free of that entirely. And it is possible. Don't accept my word for it. I say it is possible. Find out. Do it. So that a religious, a so-called spiritual life, then there is no division between you and another. You won't kill another. Your country is the country of the world. The world is your country. The world is your religion. But when you say you belong to no religion, living a spiritual life, a life that is holy, it is not something for the elite, for the few, but if that is what is necessary work at it, not pretend and all that nonsense.

So a religious mind, a religious human being, one that doesn't belong to any religion, but a brain that is functioning with truth and therefore with great intelligence and compassion.
                        - Krishnamurti

                                                           What is concept?

                                                                                         Randhir Gautam

One of the major functions of theory is to order experience with the help of concepts. It also selects relevant aspects and data among the enormous multitude of “facts” that confront the investigator of social phenomena. -

                      Lewis Coser, “The Uses of Classical Sociological Theory,”

Concept is the major constituent of social theory. Concept is language of theorists. Concepts are the tools with which we think,  argue, criticise, analyse and explain. 
Ideas are originated from everyday life, personal experiences, daily observations or creative imagination.

Concept is a generalized idea of class of objects which is a product of mental construct and its meaning is same at all times under certain circumstances. The chief characteristic of social theory is that it constitutes a series of conclusions stated in terms of concepts and them inter relations.   For example, structural theory is made of concepts such as System, equilibrium, dysfunction, division of labor and social order. Social exchange theory is made of concepts such as rewards, approval, sense of gratification, Opportunities, balance, credit. Conflict theory is made of concepts such as social inequality, alienation, Power, exploitation, struggle.  Thus, the process of theory formation then requires concepts formulation and their interrelations.  

 Everything is construct in this world. No theory can construct without concept. No abstraction can be done without concept. Concept is being used for the very purpose to define particular phenomena. concepts are products of mind, and when their meaning is shared, communication of ideas takes place in daily life as well as in intellectual communities. Concepts are mental constructs or logical abstractions. 

 No definition can be absolutely true in social science, therefore a definition is to be understood as a resolution.  A concept is used for precision and to clear researcher’s conception. Therefore, it is important for theoretical formulation.

A researcher must keep in mind that the contracted concept must denote the unique qualities of that which is being defined. Concept development shows a researcher’s maturity. Concept formation is an essential step in the process of reasoning. 

   

Concepts vary according to their level of abstraction

A concept is either defined objectively or operationally. When concept is having empirical variable standardized referents (scales), then it is considered to be objectively defined.

when concept is defined in terms of process or behavior, then it is considered to be operationally.  To operationalize concept means to define concepts in terms of its attributes which could be empirically observed during research.  This is the way to convert concepts into empirical measurements. There is a room for disagreement in such concepts because it lacks uniqueness.

Concepts are used to scaled variables in theory building. A concept is an idea which can either be expressed as a symbol or in words. A good concept has five attributes –  clarity, appropriateness, measurability, reproducibility and comparability.

Theoretical concept is an idea that is thought through, carefully defined, and made explicit in a theory. Concept clarifies thinking. It has a critical role in advancing knowledge and in organizing the way that we conduct research. As social thinker, we tend to define concepts more precisely than what common people perceive in daily life. We link concepts in a theory with research studies and empirical data.  We build up our knowledge of the world not simply looking as it but through developing,  redefining and reexamine concepts which will help us make sense of it.  Concepts are building blocks of human knowledge.  Concepts help in understanding of reality that a science is engaged in studing.  

                           Neo-functionalism

                                                                                    ~     Randhir Gautam

  

After 50 years of its emergence (1930), functionalism started to lose its popularity in 1980s.

Ignorance of the question of social conflict, disorganization of society, and change prove its conservative bias, one-dimensional views and idealism in terms of theory building. It misunderstood hierarchy as order. Universalization of application of its theory was illusory. In order to overcome its major difficulties, neo-functionalism came into existence.

 Epistemological orientation –

 The mid-1980s   was a time of non-ideological orientation of theory building in social sciences. Alexander himself states that “neofunctionalism is a tendency rather than a developed theory” (1985).  Paradigms were differentiated in oppositional group between conflict and order theories, micro and macro approaches, structural and cultural views.

As we know the very emergence of parsionian sociology began with the question of social action which latter become the crux of micro sociology. Parsonian functionalism was obsessed with system theory that is to say it   solely interested in explaining the survival of society.  functionalism ignored   dynamism and creativity of an individual. Individual is only rational but also has expressive action in this way parsonian and Weberian action theory limit the sense of action.  I will later talk about social action in details.

  Context of theory building -

 Social theories give birth in particular context. Neofunctionalism was born in a context of the Vietnam War, civil Rights movement, women movements, student movements and Black movements. conservative orientation of sociology significantly replaced by many different orientation of theories. Hierarchy, war, conflict and social justice come into the center of conceptualization of society. 

 Alexander provides new insights by making functionalism self-critical while retaining its theoretical core. Therefore, his goal is to create a more synthetic theory which can incorporate the concerns of culture and individual. He changes parsonian theoretical orientation towards dynamic, multi-dimensional, open-ended and plural theory. He also rejects menopausal determinism and reductionism in theory building.  He tried to discernment between personality, culture, and society in order to make social theory systematic. He thinks theory building is considered to be independent of all the levels involved in sociological analysis.

 

  Methodological question of neo-functionalism –

 Alexander emphasizes the role of presuppositions In theory building. He states Presuppositions are of a metaphysical nature, and therefore cannot be empirically validate, but they constitute to produce theories by inspiring and guiding the notions drown from empirical world.  

Why are presuppositions useful?

They are useful because they establish their epistemological foundations, in the sense that they point out general standards of validity for social sciences, and provide them with general principles able to subsume principles deriving from lower analytical levels.

 He further states social changes involve a theoretical change only if only thinker’s reformulate propositions. Once Alexander said “theoretical changes take place not because of new empirical evidences, but because of the scientist’ new epistemological and theoretical orientation”

 For example, Female gender was excluded from the civil sphere until feminist movements took place in 20^th century. He is one of the first thinker who identified intellectual perspective as a connotation of social change.  He further states conceptual distinction in social sciences is not to be seen as opposition but these conceptual categories are only made for the purpose of study.

   What is the perspective of neofunctionlism?

The major contributor of neofunctionalism in America are Jeffrey Alexander and Paul Colomy and Richard Münch in Germany. These thinkers tried to integrate theories such as pragmatism, symbolic interactionism, phenomenology, Frankfurt school, exchange theory and so on.

Neofunctionalism operates with in a formulation of ‘strong programme’ with a descriptive model of society that sees society as composed of elements that, in interaction with one another, form a pattern. This pattern allows the system to be differentiated from its environment. Parts of the system are “symbiotically connected,” and their interaction is not determined by some overarching force. Alexander argues social change is not productive of conformity and harmony but rather “individuation and institutional strains”. He states neofunctionalism pays equal attention of both micro and macro constituents of society.  Neofunctionalism is also concerned with interest in integration, not as an accomplished fact but rather as a social possibility.

Alexander argues    promoting social order through shared value systems must be balanced by explicit recognition of conflicting interests, environmental conditions and constraints, and the unforeseen contingencies individuals face in dealing with the particular situations in which they find themselves.  

Here I am going to quote Alexander for the better understanding of neo-functionalism.

“The central question that every social theory addresses in defining the nature of action is whether or not–or to what degree–action is rational………. [T]o presuppose that action is instrumentally rational is to assume that action is guided by ends of pure efficiency. In terms of the more differentiated terminology of goals and norms, it assumes that goals are calculated to achieve broader normative purposes in the most efficient manner possible, given the constraining external conditions. Because any relation of goals to norms that is not efficiently rational is disregarded, goals can be viewed as performing a function similar to means. Ideally oriented goals, are, in effect, reduced to materially oriented means, and more general norms as such become irrelevant: action is viewed as a continuous effort at economizing, calculating, and, indeed, “rationalizing.” (Alexander)

   This quotation itself answers the most important question. Whether social order to be seen as reflecting objective or external constraints or subjective internal commitments?

Alexander does not argue that social order is insignificant but he ask more fundamental question how social order is created and sustained?

parsons, Marx and  Weber all interpreted human action in one dimensional way. Marx emphasized social consciousness, Parsons emphasized on voluntarism and Weber empathized on meaning making interaction. Neo-functionalism analyses alternative way and argued for a multidimensional framework

 Sociology of culture

   Why culture is important for Alexander?

 One of the main functions of culture is that it allows people to express themselves, sometimes aesthetically . culture is very significant in Alexander's analysis in terms of multi-dimensional and systematic understanding of social action . 

Alexander calls neo-functionalism; strong program. He wanted to conceptualize the relationship between society and culture.  His quest for sociology of culture is quite significant for sociology. He claims the autonomy of culture from any social determination. He advocates new approach of social investigation. What is ‘strong programme’?

The strong programme attaches great relevance to meanings, narratives, beliefs, symbols and ideologies, collective representations, and in general to the cultural aspect of social life. He seeks to interpret actors, and taking into account the hierarchies and the social institutions that mediate the relation between actors and culture. Criticizing Parsons' view of culture, he states culture is not merely institutional regulating and controlling system.

Alexander also questions the distinction between social agency and social action by stating that social   action is the movement of persons, intended as actors, in time and space. Social agency means actors’ freedom to move among the three structured environments of the social, the cultural and the personality system. He criticized Giddens for that matter.

   Criticisms of Neo-functionalism - 

  Some sociologists argue Individuals are still regarded as ‘reactors to the system’ rather than ‘dynamic and creative actors’. Social Conflict and racial stratification are recognized but remains at secondary place in the theory (Abrahamson 2001).  Social movements are certainly not considered. So, some thinkers argue ‘isn’t neofunctionalism old wine in new bottles.

McLellan criticizes that the thesis expounded in the ‘strong program’ is not sufficiently argued, because Alexander’s insistence on the relevance of values, rather than on other constitutive elements of civil society, is neither historically nor theoretically justified.

                Despite such criticisms neo-functionalism provides all the limitations of contemporary sociological theories. From Weber to Hebermass, form Parsons to Marx. such as Parsons was ambivalence about order and normativity. Weber was ambivalent about the consequences of modernity so and so forth. I think you most look Alexander most recent work the dark side of modernity. 

                "Observation  Method"

                                                 - Randhir Gautam

Science begins with observation and must ultimately return to observation for its final validation (Goode and Hatt ,2006). That is to say all research ultimately depends upon the observation.
The history of research is replete with discoveries based on observations. To use observation
method is to record behaviour as it occurs around us. It consists of cognitive powers of a researcher.
It enables researcher to Interpret the field. An observer is a mediator between field and data.
Observation is an art of scientific investigation.

Observation is a primary method of data collection. As a method of inquiry, this method is an alternative or complement to the use of interview, questionnaire data and documentary.

Observation is the most important method of behavioral sciences. But simply seeing the world
around us is not observation, observation becomes scientific tools of investigation only if a
researcher has a formulated research questions and research plan.

Whatever the purpose of the study, four broad questions confront the observer (1) What should be observed? (2) How should observations be recorded? (3) What procedures should be used to try to assure the accuracy of observation? (4) What relationship should exist between the researcher and the research, and how can such a relationship be established

observation involves a researcher watching and listening to actions and events within some context over some period of time, and making a record of what has been witnessed in his or her field study.


Characteristics of observation  -
1. Full use of human sense
2. Deliberate and minute study
3. Direct study
4. To know about mutual and causal-relationship
5. Study of collective behaviour

observation provides us insightful means to see the pattern of human interaction and behavioural
pattern.


 Following are some of the popular definitions of observation -
“How odd it is that anyone should not see that all observation must be for or against some view, if it
is to be of any service”. (CHARLES DARWIN)


“A Deliberate study through the eye may be used as one of the methods for scrutinizing behaviour
and complex social institutions as well as the separate units composing a totality (P V YOUNG)


“…In the strict sense, observation implies the use of the eyes rather than of the ears and voice (C A
Moser)

“Accurate watching, noting of phenomena as they occur in nature with regard to cause and effect or
mutual relation ‘(oxford concise dictionary).

It may be helpful to provide a check list such as the one which follows. A researcher must first clear about his Categorical recording. –
1. The participants
2. The setting
3. The purpose.
4. The social behaviour
5. Frequency and duration

Following are types of observation. -
1. Structured observation - when a researcher use standardised conditions of observation
and the selection of pertinent data of observation, the observation is called as structured
observation. It is used in descriptive studies

2. Unstructured observation- when a researcher counts or measure the frequency of particular
types of act of social action for the better understanding of phenomena, unstructured
observation technique is used. It is often used in qualitative research. It is not governed by
any pre-established set of categories. It is used in exploratory studies.


3. Participant observation - If the observer experience what the members of the group
experience, the observation is called as the participant observation. Participant observation
deals with inside view. familiarity of respondent because researcher witness observerbing
phenomena in their natural setting provides more authentic explanation of phenomena.
this method is closely associated with ethnography.
 This method originated in the field work of social anthropologist and in the urban research of Chicago school. The first time Lindman
used the word participant observation in his book social Discovery in 1924



John Howard study of prison ,Malinowski study of Agronauts ,Remond firth study of Tikopia
Erving Goffman study of mental hospital are some of important studies of participant observation .
participant observation does not mean to act or thinks like respondent. The sociologist
cannot, for example, become a criminal in order to study a criminal gang.
Participant Observation carried out without the explicit awareness and agreement of the social unit being studied. It is most intensive and minute study. In participant observation one may have to
sacrifice scientific precision to some extent. Naturalism, low reactivity are something which a
researcher is supposed to have.

A researcher enters the field with a focus to know something unknown. participant observation is
highly labour –intensive method of discovery and mapping of multiple perspectives with an
enquiring minds . In social interaction necessarily requires a deep knowledge of the participant
culture with long period of observation.
If a sociologist wishes to learn about marriage ceremonies and to explore social relations among the families in a suburban community, participant observation is one of the best method. suppose if one is asked to do a sociological studies of a factory workers. While one can learn much about the life of a factory worker by taking a job in a factory, introspecting on his own experience and watching the behaviour of others, she/ he may need to supplement this by getting individual to explain what they are doing or why they are doing it.


Followings are some merits of the participant type of observation

1. The observer is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group.
2.The researcher can even gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion.

3.The observer can even verify the truth of statements made by respondent in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule

The central methodological problem of such research is balancing adequate ‘subjectivity with
adequate objectivity. Too much detachment weakens the insights that participant observation
brings in other words the researcher may lose the objectivity to the extent he participates. Too
much involvement will render the data of questionable value for social science.


4. Non-participant observation - when the researcher observes as a detached emissary
without any attempt on his/her part to experience through involvement what others feel,
the observation of this type is often termed as non-participant observation. A researcher
becomes a passive observer but with an active mind. He or she is not supposed to use
instrument of precision.
Non-participant observation is used in exploratory research.

5.COVERT OBSERVATION – covert participation is less likely to raise problems of latent
identities and therefore preferred where practicably and ethically possible.


6.Overt observation – participant observation carried out with the agreement of the subject
being studied

7.Disguised observation - When the researcher is observing in such a manner that his/her presence
may be unknown to the people he/she is observing; such an observation is described as disguised observation.

Sometimes we talk of controlled and uncontrolled observation also. observation takes place in the
natural setting in uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled
observation.


Participant observer in particular and observer in  general faces especially severe difficulties in
maintaining objectivity.
 following are some of the effects that can lead to unscientific study.

1. Hawthorn effect - It refers to the behaviour modifying effects. when a respondent act like
unnatural or rather behaves artificially.
2. Elevation effect - When a researcher has a tendency to use a particular part of the
scale in recording an interaction, this phenomenon is known as the elevation effect
3. Halo effect – when a researcher allows his or her judgement to influence his or her
observation for example when white race is considered to be more intelligent and most
sociable. This can happen in teaching when a teacher’s assessment of the performance of a
student in one subject may influence his/her rating of that student’s performance in another.


 An observer must aware about the conception of ‘Reactivity ‘. Basically there are two types of
reactivity
1. Personal –It is concerned with the impact of behaviour of researcher on observed action. A
good training of researcher comes in the picture. when you state participant observation
you have to minimise the effect of your personality by entering into group. The researcher’s
latent identity should to hidden for that matter.

2. Procedural – It is the effect that the whole structure of a research method may have on
subjects’ responses.


In order to get rid of the demerits of non-participant and participant observation Goody and Hatt suggested "quasi participant observation". An observer has to strike a balance between his
involvement and detachment from his field.
Participation facilitates observation. An observer must have empathy. An observer uses techniques
such as Interview, personal letters and diaries official files and video recording for the deep
understanding of society.

While doing observation in field a researcher has to focus two things. Whether the situation is to be
a ‘natural’ one or a contrived one. Whether those observed are to be aware or unaware of the
observation.

Social scientists developed an approach of observation called ‘systematic observation’. Systematic observation limits the prejudices and biases. Making the respondents feel the situation as natural,but far more through the applications of controls on the observer in the form of mechanical synchronizing devices, team observation, films and recordings, schedules and inventories, the
development of elaborate categories for locating, and inventories, the development of elaborate
categories for locating and coding behaviour quickly.

  There are some more difficulties in observation methods.  Sometimes People may not have the time, or they may not be interested to be interviewed ,They may resent being singled out or being asked questions whose purpose is obscure to them, they may object to being tested, out of fear that they may not come up to the standards of their group; and so on are some of the concerns that an observer should always keep in his mind .


Narrative, recording and Using scales in observation are important thing . But the observation itself may be defective and illusory or ideologically; wrong, associations may make it imperfect; judgments may misinterpret the experience; and suggestive influences may falsify the data of the senses .
A researcher must be good Communication skills.
One of the greatest sources of unreliability is the constant error introduced by the observer because of distortion of his perceptions by his own needs or values.

 The observer is always a variable to be
taken into account. observation method has various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive method. Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited.
Observation methods deals with the question of accuracy and reliability. It provides insight to
formulation of hypostasis and being a popular method.
Once Bertrand Russel said,’ The kernel of the scientific outlook is the refusal to regard our own
desires, tastes, and interests as affording a key to the understanding of the world ‘


An observer must check his or her physical, physiological and psychological effects on his
observation and will explore unknown facts more scientifically. A scientific observation is foundation of science .



References

Goode,J William and Hatt ,K Paul.2006 ‘Methods in Social research ,New Delhi :Surjeet Publication

Wilson.M.J and Miller P.Mcc ,1993.‘A Dictionary of Social Science Methods,New York:John Wiley &
Sons

Mishra ,R P ,1989. ‘ Research Methodology ‘ New Delhi :Concept Publication Company

Holt, Rinehart and Winston , 1967. ‘Research Method in Social Relation United States of America:

THE SOCIETY FOR THE PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF SOCIAL ISSUES

Scott,Johan and Marshall Gordon , 2005. ‘ Dictionary of Sociology’ New York :Oxford University Press